by Karl-Jürgen Müller
A year ago, this newspaper published a lengthy article on Max Weber’s essay “Politics as a Vocation”.1 The following text picks up on this, focussing primarily on the current state of our politics and reflections on what it means to be a responsible citizen today.
There have been times when “political ethics” was a public issue and was also codified in legal texts. It was the years immediately following the Second World War. Examples of this are the principles of international law laid down in the Charter of the United Nations of 1945 and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. Article 1 of the latter states this unequivocally:
“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.”
Ethical guidelines for post-war Europe were formulated. In the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, many provisions in the original text of the German Grundgesetz of 1949 were based on human rights and international law, on natural law, i.e. deeply ethical principles. This is reflected in the imperative for peace and, above all, in Article 1, Paragraph 1:
“Human dignity shall be inviolable. To respect and protect it shall be the duty of all state authority.”
After the crimes of the Second World War, also political leaders expressed their commitment to issues of political ethics.2
Political ethics
After the supposed end of the Cold War, such voices were heard once again. In 1991, Bernhard Sutor, then professor of political science at the Catholic University of Eichstätt and member of the Central Committee of German Catholics, published his standard work “Political Ethics: A Comprehensive Presentation Based on Christian Social Teaching” which was read not only in church circles. Sutor was no outsider. In 1997, he was awarded the “Cross of Merit, First Class, of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany”.
Bernhard Sutor did not base his “Political Ethics” on an idealised image of humanity but considered the fallibility of modern humans – as well as our potential for compassion and political action. Politics means shaping coexistence within the state and with other states around the world here and now – under the current conditions, with the people living today and with the governments holding state power today. But with the firm will to seek realistic solutions to existing problems. Solutions that have a point of reference: a political ethic focusing on the common good – not just the good of the few, but of all people. This combination of realism, political modesty, small steps and yet high standards also characterised Max Weber’s political ethics, according to the thesis in the article published a year ago.
This article ended as follows:
“The reader may now consider how relevant Max Weber’s remarks, formulated more than 100 years ago, still are today. Perhaps it is worth reflecting on them in greater depth [...]. Perhaps it would be better to study Max Weber – consider his thoughts seriously and develop upon them. This could include, for example, taking a closer look at key concepts such as passion in politics, a sense of responsibility and a sense of proportion. What is the importance of empathising with those affected by political decisions? Is it not an indispensable part of a sense of responsibility? And what do ethics of responsibility and ethics of ultimate ends mean in today’s world? [...] Last but not least: Wouldn’t political responsibility for all citizens – as more direct democracy – be the best remedy against the demonic possession of power?”
WEF in Davos – many sides of political fallacy
However, if we look at the actual policies and politicians in our Western countries, it seems that such issues were not addressed last year either. On the contrary, the decline of political culture in many Western countries continues. This is primarily a consequence of the war course pursued by our governments and other influential forces. What is wrong with our countries when we need to look to other regions of the world to find common ground for politics based on ethical principles? Principles that should be familiar to us, but which are increasingly being ignored in our own countries.
There are politicians who openly state that, for them, there is only one set of ethics, only one set of morals and reason: their own, very personal ones – there is no need for international law. US President Donald Trump is one such politician. Not better are the hypocrites who gathered in Davos a few days ago. While Donald Trump speaks openly about using the power he has, the hypocrites pretend that “the law” is sacred to them, as if they were “victims” of “great power rivalries” and as if they wanted to remain steadfast and, above all, united (multilaterally) in their commitment to the “rule-based international order” in order to achieve their own strength and develop their “power”. Of course with a clear enemy: Russia, in any case, China, which is almost as bad, not to mention Iran and North Korea... and time and again, Donald Trump... and without admitting to their own violations of the law.
More power for a centralised EU Europe
Ursula von der Leyen’s and Friedrich Merz’s Davos plea for an “independent” Europe – the German Chancellor hardly mentioned Germany at all – does not mean a Europe of citizens, a Europe of sovereign states. Rather, it means an EU with more power, armed to the teeth, increasingly politically centralised and economically radical in its market approach. Without democratic control and without human rights-guaranteed freedoms. There are many examples of this. See the sanctions against Jacques Baud and against many others. Freedom, as the Treaty of Lisbon states, means above all “freedom” in the movement of goods, capital, services, and people in the EU. Merz has announced that he will campaign more strongly for these “freedoms”.
Ursula von der Leyen followed in the footsteps of Jean Monnet, the spiritual father of the undemocratic, centralised, supranational entity that was first called the “European Coal and Steel Community” and is now the EU. He coined the phrase: “Europe will be forged in crises, and will be the sum of the solutions adopted for those crises.” Von der Leyen said in Davos that: “geopolitical shocks can – and must – serve as an opportunity for Europe. In my view, the seismic change we are going through today is an opportunity, in fact, a necessity to build a new form of European independence. This need is neither new nor a reaction to recent events. It has been a structural imperative for far longer.” And Merz said: “This new world of great powers is being built on power, on strength and when it comes to it, on force. It is not a cozy place. [...] Two days ago, [Canadian Prime Minister] Mark Carney said in this hall from this place: ‘We must no longer rely only on the power of our values. We must also recognize the value of our power.’ I share that view. And when I look into this room, into this hall, I want to say: Most of us share it. And that is a good starting point. European Friends, if I may say so: Our power today rests on three pillars: our security, our competitiveness, and our unity.” Therefore, “First, we must invest massively in our ability to defend ourselves. [...] In the new age of great powers, Europe must stand together resolutely and sovereignly. [...] This will only work, if we work together as ONE European Union.”
And what about us citizens?
In his lecture “Politics as a Vocation”, Max Weber limited himself to politicians and the question of their ethics. He demanded – with good reason – that politicians should act in an “ethically responsible” manner: with an eye to the consequences of their actions; when dealing with power, with an awareness of its “demonic” nature; with passion, a sense of responsibility and a sense of proportion. Weber does not mention citizens as active subjects of politics. Today, more than 100 years later, the world has changed. Little political ethics can be expected from the responsible politicians of our countries in the foreseeable future. Isn’t it time to ask more broadly and clearly whether there is also an ethics of responsibility for the mature citizen – a “political ethics”, a “virtue ethics” for the citizen? An ethics that is more than just pointing the moral finger at politics, and also different from pure “ethics of conviction”.
What does that mean in concrete terms?
A few brushstrokes for discussion: Responsible citizens who act ethically have high ethical standards and are aware of the current state of politics. They think historically and react not with condemnation but with interest – without feeling powerless and simply accepting what they “understand”. They know that politics is always linked to power – state power, financial power, media power, etc. They are aware of the dangers of abuse of power, namely when state authority is directed against the law and no longer serves the common good, but rather special interests. Their view of humanity is realistic... and therefore confident. He believes that compromises are inevitable and that, as a rule, progress is only made in small steps. He searches for even the smallest points of contact, for glimmers of humanity and reason. For the smallest steps towards solving political problems – in the interests of the common good and with the high standards of political ethics as a distant horizon. He exercises his civil and human rights as much and as long as possible. And above all: He does not give up. •
2 cf. the many interesting articles in Bucher, Peter (ed.). Nachkriegsdeutschland 1945–1949. Quellen zum politischen Denken der Deutschen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Freiherr vom Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe. Darmstadt, Special edition 2010
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